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Gdańsk University of Technology

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Publications from the year 2022

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  • Tacit knowledge influence on intellectual capital and innovativeness in the healthcare sector: A cross-country study of Poland and the US
    • Wioleta Kucharska
    2022 Full text JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

    This study provides empirical proof that whole organizational innovativeness is rooted in tacit knowledge due to its potency of human capital creation and, that a learning culture composed of a learning climate and mistakes acceptance component fosters human capital development. The main practical implication is that if the IC components are externally rather than internally determined in the particular organization embedded in the specific healthcare system, human capital’s power to create an innovative solution is diminished even if the learning culture is developed. So, practically, private healthcare organizations are more innovative than public. Novelty: This study exposed how tacit knowledge creation driven by learning culture and its mistakes acceptance critical component drives next IC components structure, which influences internal performance innovation in the healthcare sector driven by private and public funds. Findings were obtained from a healthcare industry sample composed of 350 cases from Poland and 365 from the United States. Data were analyzed using the structural equation modeling method using Amos and OLS regression using SPSS PROCESS macro.

  • Tailoring Diffusional Fields in Zwitterion/Dopamine Copolymer Electropolymerized at Carbon Nanowalls for Sensitive Recognition of Neurotransmitters
    • Adrian Olejnik
    • Mateusz Ficek
    • Marek Szkodo
    • Alicja Stanisławska
    • Jakub Karczewski
    • Jacek Ryl
    • Anna Dołęga
    • Katarzyna Siuzdak
    • Robert Bogdanowicz
    2022 Full text ACS NANO

    The importance of neurotransmitter sensing in the diagnosis and treatment of many psychological illnesses and neurodegenerative diseases is non-negotiable. For electrochemical sensors to become widespread and accurate, a long journey must be undertaken for each device, from understanding the materials at the molecular level to real applications in biological fluids. We report a modification of diamondized boron-doped carbon nanowalls (BCNWs) with an electropolymerized polydopamine/polyzwitterion (PDA|PZ) coating revealing tunable mechanical and electrochemical properties. Zwitterions are codeposited with PDA and noncovalently incorporated into a structure. This approach causes a specific separation of the diffusion fields generated by each nanowall during electrochemical reactions, thus increasing the contribution of the steady-state currents in the amperometric response. This phenomenon has a profound effect on the sensing properties, leading to a 4-fold enhancement of the sensitivity (3.1 to 14.3 μA cm–2 μM–1) and a 5-fold decrease of the limit of detection (505 to 89 nM) in comparison to the pristine BCNWs. Moreover, as a result of the antifouling capabilities of the incorporated zwitterions, this enhancement is preserved in bovine serum albumin (BSA) with a high protein concentration. The presence of zwitterion facilitates the transport of dopamine in the direction of the electrode by intermolecular interactions such as cation−π and hydrogen bonds. On the other hand, polydopamine units attached to the surface form molecular pockets driven by hydrogen bonds and π–π interactions. As a result, the intermediate state of dopamine–analyte oxidation is stabilized, leading to the enhancement of the sensing properties.

  • Tailoring of Optical Properties of Methacrylate Resins Enriched by HPHT Microdiamond Particles
    • Ewelina Kowalewska
    • Mateusz Ficek
    • Krzysztof Formela
    • Artur Zieliński
    • Srinivasu Kunuku
    • Mirosław Sawczak
    • Robert Bogdanowicz
    2022 Nanomaterials

    Diamond particles have great potential to enhance the mechanical, optical, and thermal properties of diamond–polymer composites. However, the improved properties of diamond–polymer composites depend on the size, dispersibility, and concentration of diamond particles. In the present study, diamond–polymer composites were prepared by adding the microdiamond particles (MDPs) with different concentrations (0.2–1 wt.%) into polymers (acrylate resins) and then subjected to a photocuring process. The surface morphology and topography of the MDPs–polymer composites demonstrated a uniform high-density distribution of MDPs for one wt.% MPDs. Thermogravimetric analysis was employed to investigate the thermal stability of the MDPs–polymer composites. The addition of MDPs has significantly influenced the polymers’ thermal degradation. Absorption and emission spectra of thin layers were recorded through UV/Vis spectrophotometry and spectrofluorimetry. The obtained results revealed a significant increase in the fluorescence intensity of MDPs–polymer composites (at 1 wt.% of MDPs, a 1.5×, 2×, and 5× increase in fluorescence was observed for MDPs–green, MDPs–amber daylight, and MDPs–red resin, respectively) compared with the reference polymer resins. The obtained results of this work show the new pathways in producing effective and active 3D-printed optical elements.

  • Targeting DNA Topoisomerase II in Antifungal Chemotherapy.
    • Kavya Kondaka
    • Iwona Gabriel
    2022 Full text MOLECULES

    Topoisomerase inhibitors have been in use clinically for the treatment of several diseases for decades. Although those enzymes are significant molecular targets in antibacterial and anticancer chemotherapy very little is known about the possibilities to target fungal topoisomerase II (topo II). Raising concern for the fungal infections, lack of effective drugs and a phenomenon of multidrug resistance underlie a strong need to expand the range of therapeutic options. In this review paper, we discussed the usefulness of fungal topo II as a molecular target for new drug discovery. On the basis of previously published data, we described structural and biochemical differences between fungal and human enzymes as well as a molecular basis of differential sensitivity to known anticancer drugs targeting the latter. This review focuses especially on highlighting the differences that may underlie the selectivity of action of new inhibitors. Distinct sites within fungal topo II in comparison with human counterparts are observed and should be further studied to understand the significance of those sites and their possible usage in design of new drugs.

  • Task Scheduling – Review of Algorithms and Analysis of Potential Use in a Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant
    • Tomasz Ujazdowski
    • Robert Piotrowski
    2022 Full text IEEE Access

    The idea of task scheduling is to increase the efficiency of a system by minimising wasted time, evenly loading machines, or maximising the throughput of machines. Moreover, the use of appropriate scheduling algorithms often leads to a reduction in the energy costs of the process. Task scheduling problems are found in a variety of industrial areas, and their scale changes significantly depending on the problem. This review shows the extent to which task scheduling methods are applied in industry. This paper presents methods and algorithms for solving task scheduling problems. In addition, an analysis of the possibility of using task scheduling methods to improve the efficiency of biological wastewater treatment plants was also conducted. This approach is based on the assumption of a balanced workload for multiple reactors. Analysing the case study of a wastewater treatment plant in Swarzewo in Northern Poland is applied.

  • Technical solutions and benefits of introducing rain gardens – Gdańsk case study
    • Magda Kasprzyk
    • Wojciech Szpakowski
    • Eliza Poznańska
    • Floris Boogaard
    • Katarzyna Bobkowska
    • Magdalena Gajewska
    2022 Full text SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT

    Nowadays, Nature-Based Solutions (NBSs) are developing as innovative multifunctional tools to maximize urban ecosystem services such as storm water preservation, reduction of runoff and flood protection, groundwater pollution prevention, biodiversity enhancement, and microclimate control. Gdańsk is one of the first Polish cities to widely introduce rain gardens (one example of an NBS) in different areas such as parks, city center, main crossroads, and car parks. They involve different technical innovations individually tailored to local architecture, including historic buildings and spaces. Gdańskie Wody, which is responsible for storm water management in the city, adopted a pioneering strategy and started the construction of the first rain garden in 2018. Currently, there are a dozen rain gardens in the city, and this organisation's policy stipulates the construction of NBSs in new housing estates without building rainwater drainage. Various types of rain gardens can be created depending on location characteristics such as geo-hydrology, as well as local conditions and needs. Furthermore, each of them might be equipped with specific technical solutions to improve the rain garden's function – for example, an oil separator or setter can be included to absorb the initial, most polluted runoff. During winter, the large amount of sodium chloride usually used to grit the roads may pose the greatest threat to biodiversity and plants. These installations have been included in a large rain garden in Gdańsk, located in the central reservation of the main streets in the city center. This work presents various technical considerations and their impact on ecosystem functions, and the urban circularity challenges provided by rain gardens operating in different technologies and surroundings. The precipitation quantity and the following infiltration rate were estimated by installing pressure transducers. Furthermore, mitigation of the urban heat island was analysed based on remote sensing images.

  • Techniki wielokryterialnego podejmowania decyzji jako narzędzia wspierające etap przygotowania próbek do analizy
    • Marta Bystrzanowska
    • Marek Tobiszewski
    2022 Full text Analityka: Nauka i Praktyka

    Dylematami decyzyjnymi chemików-analityków są wybór odpowiednich technik przygotowania próbek do analizy, procedur analitycznych, warunków ich prowadzenia oraz dobór odczynników chemicznych. Elementy szczególnie istotne w aspekcie metrologicznym. Jednakże rozwiązanie optymalne powinno także uwzględniać kwestie ekonomiczne i środowiskowe, ostatnie reprezentowane przez koncepcję zielonej chemii (wytyczne do projektowania bardziej prośrodowiskowych procedur analitycznych). Przygotowanie próbek do analizy to kluczowy etap, zajmujący najwięcej czasu, generujący liczne błędy, co znacząco wpływa na jakość oznaczeń. Złożoność procedur analitycznych oraz konieczność jednoczesnego uwzględnienia ogromnej ilości kryteriów i wariantów czyni podejmowanie decyzji zadaniem trudnym. Pomocą może być zastosowanie technik analizy wielokryterialnej w podejmowaniu decyzji (ang. MCDA), bazujących na algorytmach matematycznych, gdzie problem decyzyjny oraz wynik analizy przedstawiane są numerycznie, a warianty szeregowane malejąco zgodnie do zadanych warunków analizy. W artykule przybliżono złożoność problemów decyzyjnych w chemii analitycznej. Na przykładzie wyboru najkorzystniejszej procedury analitycznej do oznaczania DDT w próbkach miodu, omówiono zastosowanie technik MCDA i wynikające korzyści.

  • Technologia CyberOko do diagnozy, rehabilitacji i komunikowania się z pacjentami niewykazującymi oznak przytomności
    • Andrzej Czyżewski
    • Piotr Odya
    • Bożena Kostek
    • Agnieszka Kwiatkowska
    • Michał Lech
    • Michał Kucewicz
    2022 Full text Przegląd Telekomunikacyjny + Wiadomości Telekomunikacyjne

    CyberOko jest rozwiązaniem opracowanym w Politechnice Gdańskiej, które umożliwia nawiązanie kontaktu i pracę z osobami głęboko upośledzonymi komunikacyjnie. W sposób inteligentny śledzi ruch gałek ocznych, dzięki czemu umożliwia rehabilitację i ocenę stanu świadomości pacjenta nawet w stanie całkowitego porażenia. Rozwiązanie obejmuje także analizę fal EEG, obiektywne badanie słuchu i badanie sygnałów z macierzy elektrod wszczepianych w głąb ludzkiego mózgu. Wspomaga komunikację z pacjentami niewykazującymi oznak przytomności i ich dalszą rehabilitację sposobami umożliwiającymi pokonanie istotnych ograniczeń, jakie mają metody i technologie będące w powszechnym użyciu, tzn. subiektywne skale ocen pacjentów (np. ocena w skali GCS – Glasgow Conciousness Scale), badanie procesów pamięciowych wewnątrz mózgu ludzkiego. Wdrożone urządzenie jest często jedyną szansą dla osoby chorej (np. w stanach podobnych do śpiączki, w przetrwałym stanie wegetatywnym, osoby sparaliżowanej, bez możliwości mówienia), aby mogła ona wyrazić swoje potrzeby.

  • Technologia wytwarzania addytywnego przewodzących nanokompozytów węglowych z matrycą polilaktydową w aspekcie zastosowań elektrochemicznych
    • Mateusz Cieślik
    2022 Full text

    Druk 3D jest obecny w wielu przestrzeniach życia codziennego, od hobbystów po przemysł samochodowy, lotniczy czy medycynę. Znalazł on również swoje zastosowanie w badaniach elektrochemicznych. We wstępie pracy opisano historię oraz rozwój druku 3D. Szczególnie skupiono się na komercyjnie dostępnych przewodzących materiałach kompozytowych PLA, używanych w badaniach elektrochemicznych. Rozdział zawierający wyniki badań podzielono na poszczególne podrozdziały. W podrozdziale 4.1 i 4.2 opisano nowatorskie metody aktywacji powierzchni elektrod CB_PLA za pomocą ablacji laserowej, przy pomocy laserów: nanosekundowego i femtosekundowego. W podrozdziale 4.3 opisano jak wielokrotne przetwórstwo komercyjnie dostępnych na rynku przewodzących materiałów kompozytowych mających swoje zastosowanie w druku 3D wpływa na ich charakterystykę elektrochemiczną. W podrozdziale 4.4 przedstawiono wyniki badań wpływu czynników chemicznych i fizycznych na procesy utleniania powierzchniowego elektrod diamentowych domieszkowanych borem. W szczególności skupiono się na wpływie oddziaływania wysokiej temperatury. W podrozdziale 4.5 opisano charakterystykę fizyko-chemiczną proszków nanodiamentowych DND i BCNW_GC, których użyto jako napełniaczy do wytworzenia kompozytowych materiałów przewodzących na bazie PLA jako matrycy. W podrozdziale 4.6 opisano poszczególne etapy projektowania, prototypowania oraz drukowania wolnostojących trójwymiarowych struktur 3D, przy użyciu ekstrudera dwumateriałowego. W rozdziale piątym podsumowano zaprezentowane wyniki.

  • Technology and democracy: the who and how in decision-making. The cases of Estonia and Catalonia
    • Rosa Borge
    • Joaquim Brugué
    • David Duenas Cid
    2022 Full text Profesional de la Informacion

    This paper focuses on the use of technology to improve democracy, comparing the cases of Estonia and Catalonia. Both examples are closely related in their use of technology to further democratize the decision-making processes but have opposite starting points. Estonia’s internet voting system is an offshoot of the comprehensive e-governance system developed by the Estonian government. It is meant to make it more convenient for people to vote and, thus, easier for them to take part in elections. In Catalonia, the online participation system Decidim, initially set up in the city of Barcelona, represents a bottom-up project that emerged from the 15 May protests and aims to make the representative democratic system more direct and participatory. In our comparison, we approach both paradigmatic cases from a theoretical reflection on the ideal types of democracy in relation to how decisions are made and by whom. Both projects have evolved and integrated new features that draw them together. First, internet voting is able to reach wider portions of society and digitally transform the Public Administration. Second, online participation platforms increase the potential for collecting citizens’ proposals and enriching discussions. These features make them more like a mixed model which, in the current model of representative democracy, creates spaces for more direct and deliberative democracy.

  • Teloxantron inhibits the processivity of telomerase with preferential DNA damage on telomeres
    • Natalia Maciejewska
    • Mateusz Olszewski
    • Jakub Jurasz
    • Maciej Bagiński
    • Stasevych Maryna
    • Zvarych Viktor
    • Marco Folini
    • Nadia Zaffaroni
    2022 Full text Cell Death and Disease

    Telomerase reactivation is one of the hallmarks of cancer, which plays an important role in cellular immortalization and the development and progression of the tumor. Chemical telomerase inhibitors have been shown to trigger replicative senescence and apoptotic cell death both in vitro and in vivo. Due to its upregulation in various cancers, telomerase is considered a potential target in cancer therapy. In this study, we identified potent, small-molecule telomerase inhibitors using a telomerase repeat amplification protocol assay. The results of the assay are the first evidence of telomerase inhibition by anthraquinone derivatives that do not exhibit G-quadruplex-stabilizing properties. The stability of telomerase in the presence of its inhibitor was evaluated under nearly physiological conditions using a cellular thermal shift assay. Our data showed that the compound induced aggregation of the catalytic subunit (hTERT) of human telomerase, and molecular studies confirmed the binding of the hit compound with the active site of the enzyme. The ability of new derivatives to activate DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) was determined by high-resolution microscopy and flow cytometry in tumor cell lines differing in telomere elongation mechanism. The compounds triggered DSBs in TERT-positive A549 and H460 lung cancer cell lines, but not in TERT-negative NHBE normal human bronchial epithelial and ALT-positive U2OS osteosarcoma cell lines, which indicates that the induction of DSBs was dependent on telomerase inhibition. The observed DNA damage activated DNA damage response pathways involving ATM/Chk2 and ATR/Chk1 cascades. Additionally, the compounds induced apoptotic cell death through extrinsic and intrinsic pathways in lung cancer cells. Taken together, our study demonstrated that anthraquinone derivatives can be further developed into novel telomerase-related anticancer agents.

  • TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE ON TIRE ROLLING RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS QUALITY
    • Jerzy Ejsmont
    • Grzegorz Ronowski
    • Wojciech Owczarzak
    • Sławomir Sommer
    2022 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY

    Global warming makes it necessary to reduce energy consumption, which in the case of motor vehicles, is connected, among other things, with reduction of resistive forces acting on a vehicle during its motion. One of the most important components of those forces is rolling resistance, which is very difficult to measure, especially in road conditions. The article deals with issues related to the influence of the thermal state of the tire on the accuracy of the results of rolling resistance measurements, especially for “on the road” tests. This is an important issue because currently road measurements of rolling resistance, unlike laboratory tests, are not covered by any standard indicating the correct measuring procedures and data analysis. The influence of temperature on the tire rolling resistance for passenger car and truck tires is presented, and it is determined what conditions must be met for the thermal state of the tire to ascertain a reliable measurement of the rolling resistance.

  • Temperature Sensors Based on Polymer Fiber Optic Interferometer
    • Małgorzata Szczerska
    2022 Full text Chemosensors

    Temperature measurements are of great importance in many fields of human activities, including industry, technology, and science. For example, obtaining a certain temperature value or a sudden change in it can be the primary control marker of a chemical process. Fiber optic sensors have remarkable properties giving a broad range of applications. They enable continuous real-time temperature control in difficult-to-reach areas, in hazardous working environments (air pollution, chemical or ionizing contamination), and in the presence of electromagnetic disturbances. The use of fiber optic temperature sensors in polymer technology can significantly reduce the cost of their production. Moreover, the installation process and usage would be simplified. As a result, these types of sensors would become increasingly popular in industrial solutions. This review provides a critical overview of the latest development of fiber optic temperature sensors based on Fabry–Pérot interferometer made with polymer technology.

  • Temperature-controlled nanomosaics of AuCu bimetallic structure towards smart light management
    • Wiktoria Lipińska
    • Katarzyna Grochowska
    • Jakub Karczewski
    • Jacek Ryl
    • Katarzyna Siuzdak
    2022 Full text JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE-MATERIALS IN ELECTRONICS

    Gold–copper nanostructures are promising in solar-driven processes because of their optical, photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical properties, especially those which result from the synergy between the two metals. Increasing interest in their internal structure, such as the composition or distribution of the Au and Cu as well as the size and shape of the nanoparticles, have developed to define their physicochemical properties. In this work, we present the influence of thermal treatment in temperature ranges from 100 to 600 °C on the formation process of bimetallic AuCu structures and their properties. AuCu materials were placed on nanostructured titanium foil substrates that were fabricated using electrochemical anodisation and chemical etching. Thin layers of AuCu mixture, as well as Au and Cu, were sputtered on the obtained Ti nanodimples. The materials were then annealed in a rapid thermal annealing furnace in an air atmosphere. Thermal treatment strongly affected the morphology and optical properties of the fabricated materials. AuCu NPs formed at 400 °C in titanium dimples. The material exhibits absorption of visible light in the range from c.a. 400 to 700 nm. The characterisation of the chemical nature of the samples was determined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In addition, X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy defined composition and crystallinity. Based on photoelectrochemical studies carried out with the use of linear voltammetry in 0.1 M NaOH, it is possible to distinguish two types of interactions of light with the materials such as photogenerated charge accumulation and electron–hole pair separation. A 10AuCu electrode annealed at 300 °C achieved the highest current registered under illumination at − 0.17 V vs. Ag/AgCl/0.1 M KCl. The value was 11 times higher than for a non-annealed structure.

  • Template chart detection for stoma telediagnosis
    • Mariusz Szwoch
    • Rafał Zawiślak
    • Grzegorz Granosik
    • Joanna Mik-Wojtczak
    • Michał Mik
    2022 Full text International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science

    The paper presents the concept of using color template charts for the needs of telemedicine, particularly telediagnosis of the stoma. Although the concept is not new, the current popularity and level of development of digital cameras, especially those embedded in smartphones, allow common and reliable remote advice on various medical problems, which can be very important in the case of limitations in a physical contact with a doctor. The article focuses on the initial stages of photo processing for the needs of telemedicine, i.e., on the assumptions and the process of designing the appropriate template and detecting it in photos for stoma telediagnosis. Research on the developed algorithms for the location of fiducial markers and reference color fields, carried out on the basis of over 2,000 photos, showed a very high tolerance to scene exposure, lighting conditions and the camera used. The obtained results allowed the initial image intensity normalization of the stoma area as well as correct localization and measurement of changes detected on the skin and the mucosa, which, in the opinion of doctors, significantly increased the diagnostic value of the photographs.

  • Tensile failure study of 3D printed PLA using DIC technique and FEM analysis
    • Agnieszka Sabik
    • Magdalena Rucka
    • Angela Andrzejewska
    • Erwin Wojtczak
    2022 Full text MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

    The paper presents the experimental and numerical study of the failure behaviour of Fused Filament Fabricated (FFF) Polylactic Acid (PLA) samples subjected to tensile load. The examined samples are printed in flat orientation with 0◦, 45◦ and 90◦ raster angles. During the experiments the deformation of the specimens is continuously scanned with the 3D Aramis measuring system utilizing the digital imaging correlation technique, enabling the determination of strain and stress distribution. In the modelling, it is assumed that each printed layer is a homogeneous transversely isotropic medium with the raster direction treated as the favoured one. The finite element models are developed in the Abaqus-Standard package. A two-dimensional equivalent single-layer approach is utilized to describe the deformation and stress state of the samples. The failure progress of the material is simulated by making use of the Hashin damage algorithm with energy-based softening, whereas the non-linear in-plane shear behaviour is included.

  • Teoria i praktyka
    • Agnieszka Błażko
    2022 Full text Architektura-Murator

    Teoria i praktyka to pojęcia, których zdefiniowanie w odniesieniu do projektowania architektoniczno-urbanistycznego pozwala na określenie zależności pomiędzy przestrzeniami wymagającymi bezwzględnej równowagi.

  • Teoria i praktyka według Joanny Kabrońskiej
    • Joanna Kabrońska
    2022 Full text Architektura-Murator

    Architektura jest dziedziną, której wpływ na otaczający świat jest wyjątkowo wszechstronny i sięga daleko poza projektowanie budynków. Współdziałanie praktyki, teorii i edukacji architektonicznej daje naszej profesji narzędzia budowy scenariuszy dla nadchodzącego świata i umożliwia udział w jego rzeczywistej przemianie.

  • Teoria konserwatorska a dostępność zabytków /na przykładzie Zamku Wysokiego w Malborku/
    • Grzegorz Bukal
    • Agnieszka Kowalska
    2022 Full text Ochrona Dziedzictwa Kulturowego

    Obowiązująca Ustawa z dnia 19 lipca 2019 r. o zapewnianiu dostępności osobom ze szczególnymi potrzebami zawiera wymagania dotyczące wszystkich budynków, bez odniesień do obiektów zabytkowych. Celem tekstu jest skonfrontowanie podstawowych, współczesnych zasad postępowania konserwatorskiego z możliwościami pełnego udostępniania zabytków architektury. Przyjęty w tekście, ogólny podział budynków zabytkowych w aspekcie ich podatności na usuwanie barier zilustrowano przykładem Zamku Wysokiego w Malborku, stanowiącego część kompleksu zamkowego (Muzeum Zamkowego w Malborku), wpisanego na listę dziedzictwa światowego UNESCO.

  • Testing the Diagnostic Utility of Recombinant Toxoplasma Gondii Chimeric Antigens – Generated Datasets
    • Bartłomiej Ferra
    2022 Full text

    The datasets titled Toxoplasma gondii recombinant chimeric antigens – IgM and IgG ELISAs – mouse serum samples and Toxoplasma gondii recombinant chimeric antigens – IgG and IgM ELISAs – human serum samples contain absorbance measurements obtained during serological tests using mouse and human sera in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests based on recombinant chimeric antigens. The datasets allows a comparison of absorbance values obtained for individual recombinant chimeric antigens in relation to the whole Toxoplasma lysate antigens (TLA) used in commercial tests.