2023 - Publications Repository - Gdańsk University of Technology

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Publications from the year 2023

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Influence of geometrical and operational parameters on tooth wear in the working mechanism of a satellite motor
- Paweł Śliwiński
2023 Full text Scientific Reports
This article describes the phenomena affecting the wear of the rotor of the working mechanism in a hydraulic satellite motor. The basic geometrical relationships that allow the calculation of the coordinates of the points of contact between the satellite and the rotor and the curvature are presented. A method for calculating the number of contacts of the satellite teeth with the rotor teeth and of the satellite teeth with the curvature teeth during one revolution of the rotor is proposed. A method of calculating the forces acting at the points of contact of the satellite with the rotor and the curvature is also proposed, as well as a method of calculating the stress in the tooth contact of the interacting components of the mechanism. The results of calculations of forces and stresses in tooth contact in a satellite mechanism consisting of a four-hump rotor and a six-hump curvature are presented. It is shown that the two chambers around the satellite are in the same phase in a certain range of the rotation angle of the rotor, i.e. in the emptying phase or in the filling phase. This results in the value of the force acting on the satellite resulting from the pressure difference being zero. It has also been shown that the most important parameters affecting tooth wear are the pressure difference in the working chambers of the satellite mechanism and the rotor speed.
Influence of Honing Parameters on the Quality of the Machined Parts and Innovations in Honing Processes
- Piotr Sender
- Irene Buj - Corral
2023 Full text Metals
The article presents a literature review dealing with the effect of the honing parameters on the quality of the machined parts, as well as with the recent innovations in honing processes. First, an overview about the honing and the plateau-honing processes is presented, considering the main parameters that can be varied during machining. Then, the influence of the honing parameters on surface finish, shape deviation and material removal rate is presented. Finally, some special and innovative applications of the honing process are described. For example, honing with variable kinematics allows obtaining oil grooves that are not rectilinear but curvilinear, in order to reduce the temperature of the part during machining and thus obtaining better surface finish and lower shape deviation. Automation of the honing machines is useful to improve both the production and the verification process. Another innovation consists of using 3D printed tools in honing processes, which will help to obtain abrasive tools with complex shapes, for example by means of powder bed fusion processes.
Influence of hydrochloric acid concentration and type of nitrogen source on the electrochemical performance of TiO2/N-MoS2 for energy storage applications
- Zuzanna Zarach
- Andrzej Nowak
- Konrad Trzciński
- Grzegorz Gajowiec
- Grzegorz Trykowski
- Sawczak Mirosław
- Marcin Łapiński
- Mariusz Szkoda
2023 Full text APPLIED SURFACE SCIENCE
In this work, nitrogen-doped molybdenum sulfide was directly deposited on titanium dioxide nanotubes substrate (TiO2/N-MoS2) during hydrothermal synthesis. The study focuses on the influence of hydrochloric acid concentration used for the synthesis, with the results indicating its essential role in thioacetamide hydrolysis and thus in the effectiveness of the N-MoS2 deposition. The electrode material itself is characterized by an initial capacitance of 320 mF cm−2 with 76 % capacitance retention after 10 000 cycles. Moreover, the effect of nitrogen source on the physical and capacitive properties is investigated, revealing that the simultaneous addition of aniline and ammonium persulfate contributes to the improvement of crystallinity and overall electrochemical performance of the electrode material. The analysis of charge storage mechanisms also indicates that the introduction of nitrogen atoms significantly affects the contribution of diffusion-controlled processes. In the construction of a symmetrical device, the specific capacitance of 76 F g−1 and areal capacitance of 70 mF cm−2 with the superior coulombic efficiency and 84 % of capacitance retention after 15,000 cycles is observed, with 11.1 W kg−1 and 5193.4 Wh kg−1 of energy and power density of the device, respectively.
Influence of hydrogen on a nanocrystalline high-entropy oxide with application potential in hydrogen technologies
- Kamil Domaradzki
- Marek Nowak
- Maciej Sitarz
- Marcin Łapiński
- Tomasz Brylewski
- Mieczysław Jurczyk
2023 CERAMICS INTERNATIONAL
The influence of hydrogen on a (Co0⋅2Cu0⋅2Mg0⋅2Ni0⋅2Zn0.2)O HEO with a rock salt structure was studied. Two forms of this HEO (nanopowder and sinter) were prepared via mechanochemical synthesis (MS) and additional heat treatment, respectively. The chemical stability of the synthesized samples in a pure hydrogen atmosphere was investigated using Sievert’s technique. High-pressure hydrogenation at 250 ◦C had no noticeable effect on the HEO sinter. The sintered sample was chemically, structurally, and morphologically stable, as confirmed via the XRD, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, and XPS techniques. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed the sinter to be stable in an argon gas mixture with 5 vol% of hydrogen and over the temperature range of up to 400 ◦C.
Influence of Phosphorus Speciation on Its Chemical Removal from Reject Water from Dewatering of Municipal Sewage Sludge
- Eliza Kulbat
- Krzysztof Czerwionka
2023 Full text ENERGIES
The aim of the presented research was the assessment of phosphorus speciation impact on the precipitation of phosphorus in reject water using Ca(OH)2. To achieve this, phosphorus speciation (organic and inorganic phosphorus in suspension and in dissolved form) in reject water that is produced during sludge dewatering, after methane digestion in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), was determined. This study covered the materials from four WWTPs with different compositions of feedstock for anaerobic digestion (AnD). In one, the AnD process of primary and secondary sludge was carried out without co-substrate, while in three others, co-substrate (waste from the agri-food industry and external waste-activated sludge and fats from industrial plants) was examined. The investigation was conducted in batch reactors using doses of Ca(OH)2 ranging from 2500 to 5500 mg Ca/dm3. The percentage of phosphorus forms determined in the raw reject water was similar, with the dominant form being soluble reactive phosphorus (SPR) (percentage from 87 to 96%). The small differences observed were dependent on the composition of the AnD feedstock. The results showed that, in all analysed wastewater, very high (exceeding 99.9%) phosphate phosphorus removal efficiencies were obtained using Ca(OH)2 for short reaction times (t = 1 h). The efficiency of phosphate removal depended on pH but not on the forms of phosphorus in the analysed reject water.
Influence of Soft Soil Samples Quality on the Compressibility and Undrained Shear Strength – Seven Lessons Learned From the Vistula Marshlands
- Jakub Konkol
2023 Full text Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica
This technical article presents the influence of sample quality on the compressibility parameters and undrained shear strength ( c u ) of soft soils from the Vistula Marshlands. The analysis covers: (1) quality of soft soil according to three criteria: void ratio (Δ e / e 0 index), volumetric strain (Δ ɛ v ) and C r / C c ratio; (2) influence of storage time on quality; (3) influence of sample quality on undrained shear strength ( c u ), and (4) reliability of compression and undrained shear strength parameters estimation. The sample quality of three different soft soils (peat, organic clays, and organic silts) was investigated using dataset of geotechnical investigations from the Vistula Marshlands. The reliability of oedometer tests and compressibility parameters determination was shown. Different undrained shear strength estimates (from lab and field tests) were juxtaposed with sample quality. In situ estimates of undrained shear strength were compared with results of triaxial tests and direct simple shear test on reconstituted samples as well as SHANSEP estimates. The results of research are grouped in seven lessons. The most important outcomes are: (1) the quality of samples is at best moderate or poor and there is no significant influence of storage time on sample quality, (2) regardless of testing method, the undrained shear strength natural variability of the Vistula Marshlands soft soils is between 20% and 50% depending on deposit depth and soil type, (3) the most accurate estimation of undrained shear strength can be obtained from field vane test (FVT) while unconsolidated, undrained compression (UUC) triaxial tests should be avoided, (4) SHANSEP approach can be considered as a valuable estimate of c u (next to the FVTs), which additionally allows in relatively easy way to establish lower and upper bounds of c u .
Influence of soil anisotropic stiffness on the deformation induced by an open pit excavation.
- Katarzyna Lisewska
- Marcin Cudny
2023 Full text Archives of Civil Engineering
In this paper, the problem of deformation induced by an open pit excavation in anisotropic stiff soils is analysed by FE modelling. The presented research is focused on the influence of material model with anisotropic stiffness on the accuracy of deformation predictions as compared with the field measurements. A new hyperelastic-plastic model is applied to simulate anisotropic mechanical behaviour of stiff soils. It is capable to reproduce mixed variable stress-induced anisotropy and constant inherent cross-anisotropy of the small strain stiffness. The degradation of stiffness depending on strain is modelled with the Brick-type model. The model formulation and parameters are briefly presented. General deformation pattern obtained in the exemplary 2D boundary value problem of an open pit excavation is investigated considering different values of inherent cross-anisotropy coefficient of small strain stiffness. The numerical simulations are performed as a coupled deformation-flow analysis which allows to properly model the drainage conditions. The excavation phases are simulated by removal of soil layers according to the realistic time schedule. Finally, the monitored case of the trial open pit excavation in heavily overconsolidated Oxford Clay at Elstow, UK is simulated with proposed material model both in 2D and 3D conditions. The obtained calculation results are compared with displacement measurements and discussed.
Influence of Surface Laser Treatment on Mechanical Properties and Residual Stresses of Titanium and its Alloys
- Magdalena Jażdżewska
- Beata Majkowska-Marzec
- Roman Ostrowski
- Jean-marc Olive
2023 Full text Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal
Surface modification of the titanium and its alloys used in implantology with a long-pulse laser can change the surface topography, but it also leads to changes in the stress sign and magnitude in the resulting subsurface layer. The presented research was aimed at evaluating the state of stress after laser remelting with the Nd:YAG laser of pre-etched titanium alloys Ti6Al4V and Ti13Nb13Zr and pure titanium. The obtained surface layers were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical profilography, and nanoindentation studies. Based on the results obtained after the nanoindentation tests, the character of the stresses generated in the melted layers was calculated and determined. Laser processing resulted in surface layer thicknesses between 191-320 µm and surface roughness Ra between 2.89-5.40 µm. Laser processing caused increasing hardness, and its highest value was observed for the titanium alloy Ti13Nb13Zr - 5.18 GPa. The tensile stresses appeared following laser treatment and increased with elevating laser power up to the highest value for titanium.
Influence of Surface-Modified Montmorillonite Clays on the Properties of Elastomeric Thin Layer Nanocomposites
- Adam Olszewski
- Aleksandra Ławniczak
- Paulina Kosmela
- Marcin Strąkowski
- Aleksandra Mielewczyk-Gryń
- Aleksander Hejna
- Łukasz Piszczyk
2023 Full text Materials
In recent years, polyurethane nanocomposites have attracted more attention due to the massive demand for materials with increasingly exceptional mechanical, optical, electrical, and thermal properties. As nanofillers have a high surface area, the interaction between the nanofiller and the polymer matrix is an essential issue for these materials. The main aim of this study is to validate the impact of the montmorillonite nanofiller (MMT) surface structure on the properties of polyurethane thin-film nanocomposites. Despite the interest in polyurethane–montmorillonite clay nanocomposites, only a few studies have explored the impact of montmorillonite surface modification on polyurethane’s material properties. For this reason, four types of polyurethane nanocomposites with up to 3% content of MMT were manufactured using the prepolymer method. The impact of montmorillonites on nanocomposites properties was tested by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), contact angle measurement, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The results showed that chemical and physical interactions between the polymer matrix and functional groups on the montmorillonite surface have a considerable impact on the final properties of the materials. It was noticed that the addition of MMT changed the thermal decomposition process, increased T2% by at least 14 °C, changed the hydrophilicity of the materials, and increased the glass transition temperature. These findings have underlined the importance of montmorillonite surface structure and interactions between nanocomposite phases for the final properties of nanocomposites.
Influence of temperature and anion type on thermophysical properties of aqueous solutions of morpholine based amino acid ionic liquids
- Dorota Warmińska
- Adam Kloskowski
2023 Full text JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
Densities and sound velocities of aqueous solutions of N-butyl-N-methylmorpholine based amino acid ionic liquids (AAILs), including N-acetyl-L-alanine, N-acetyl-Lvalinate, N-acetyl-L-leucinate, and N-acetyl-L-izoleucinate anions were measured at a temperature from 293.15 to 313.15 K at 5 K intervals and atmospheric pressure. These data were used to calculate the apparent molar volumes and the apparent molar compressibilities in the concentration range of (0.02 to 0.3) mol.kg-1. Infinite dilution values for the volumetric and acoustic properties were evaluated by an extrapolation procedure based on Redlich – Meyer type equations. The limiting apparent molar expansibility coefficients were also obtained from the slopes of the apparent molar volume at infinite dilution versus temperature. Using the Passynski method, the hydration numbers for AAILs in an aqueous medium were calculated. The results indicate that in the studied solutions, the ion-solvent interactions are determined by the hydrophobic effect, which results in the decrease of the limiting apparent molar compressibilities and an increase of limiting apparent molar expansibility coefficients in the order: [Mor1,4][N-Ac-L-Ala], [Mor1,4][N-Ac-L-Val], [Mor1,4][N-Ac-L-Leu], [Mor1,4][N-Ac-L-Izoleu]. The empirical slopes in Redlich –Rosenfeld – Meyer equations show that the hydrophobicity of amino acid anions is also responsible for the ion-ion interactions.
Influence of temperature and nitrogen pressure on the test without active gases for high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells
- Wojciech Rosiński
- Andrzej Wilk
- Christophe Turpin
2023 Full text Archives of Electrical Engineering
High-Temperature Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (HT-PEMFCs) are a candidate for electrical energy supply devices in more and more applications. Most notably in the aeronautic industry. Before any use, an HT-PEMFC is preheated and after that supplied with its active gases. Only at this state, the diagnostics can be performed. A method of testing not requiring a complete start-up would be beneficial for many reasons. This article describes an extended version of the charging and discharging diagnostic method of HT-PEMFCs with no active gases. This extended approach is named “Test Without Active Gases” (TWAG). This paper presents original research on the influence of nitrogen temperature and pressure on the HT-PEMFC response to charging and discharging. A lumped-element model of an HT-PEMFC is also presented. A numerical result of using this model to recreate an experimentally obtained curve is also presented.
Influence of the Addition of Recycled Aggregates and Polymer Fibers on the Properties of Pervious Concrete
- Oskar Mitrosz
- Marzena Kurpińska
- Mikołaj Miśkiewicz
- Tadeusz Brzozowski
- Hakim S. Abdelgader
2023 Full text Materials
The aim of the study was to check the possibility of reusing aggregate from recycled concrete waste and rubber granules from car tires as partial substitution of natural aggregate. The main objective was to investigate the effects of recycled waste aggregate modified with polymer fibers on the compressive and flexural strength, modulus of elasticity and permeability of pervious concrete. Fibers with a multifilament structure and length of 54 mm were deliberately used to strengthen the joints among grains (max size 31.5 mm). Eight batches of designed mixes were used in the production of pervious concrete at fixed water/binder ratio of 0.34 with cement content of 350 kg/m3. Results showed that the use of recycled concrete aggregate (8/31.5 mm) with replacement ratio of 50% (by weight of aggregate) improved the mechanical properties of pervious concrete in all analyzed cases. Whereas the replacement of 10% rubber waste aggregate (2/5 mm) by volume of aggregate reduced the compressive strength by a maximum of 11.4%. Addition of 2 kg/m3 of polymer fibers proved the strengthening effect of concrete structure, enhancing the compressive and tensile strengths by a maximum of 23.4% and 25.0%, respectively. The obtained test results demonstrate the possibility of using the recycled waste aggregates in decarbonization process of pervious concrete production, but further laboratory and field performance tests are needed.
Influence of water soaking on the ultimate tensile strength of polyester-based coated woven fabrics
- Andrzej Ambroziak
- Paweł Kłosowski
2023 Full text Archives of Civil Engineering
This research aims to determine the influence of water-soaking on polyester-based coated woven fabrics for ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break under uniaxial tensile tests. The paper begins with a short survey of literature concerning the investigation of the determination of coated woven fabric properties. The authors carried out the uniaxial tensile tests with an application of a flat grip to establish the values of the ultimate tensile strength of groups of specimens treated with different moisture conditions. SEM fractography is performed to determine the cross-section structures of coated woven fabrics. The change in the mechanical properties caused by the influence of water immersion has not been noticed in the performed investigations.
Influence of windsurfing fin stiffness distribution on the lift-drag characteristics
- Hanna Pruszko
- Maciej Reichel
- Tomasz Mikulski
2023 Full text
This article addresses the problem of determining the hydromechanical loads generated by flexible hydrofoils. The research was done on the example of the composite windsurfing fin for the RS:X monotype class. Despite the assumption of fins identity, everyday practice showed that variations of mechanical properties occur and strongly affect their performance. Therefore, we decided to study the differences between the windsurfing fins' stiffness and quantify the resulting variations in performance. The study was done using mainly computational methods supported by the experimental investigation. The two-way Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) calculations were performed to investigate this problem. From a large population of measured fins, three fins were selected for calculations, each representing various stiffness properties – rigid, moderate and flexible. The FSI calculations were performed using Abaqus and Star-CCM+ explicit coupling. The substitute Finite Element Method (FEA) model was created since the composite stacking sequence was unknown. Each fin was divided into eight sections, and the material properties of each section were identified based on the experimental investigation results. The FSI calculations aimed to find lift and drag forces generated by the fins with various stiffness distributions and the quasi-static deformation of the structure. The calculations were performed for one speed and several angles of attack. Based on that, the lift and drag forces were evaluated. The calculations obtained for flexible fins were compared to a rigid hydrofoil. Significant differences between the performance of the fins were obtained, depending on the hydrofoil angle of attack.
Informal practices in urban planning and governance. Examples from Polish cities
- Izabela Mironowicz
- Michał Marek Ciesielski
2023 Planning Practice and Research
Planning has a formal, legally defined component and an informal component developed in response to deficiencies in the planning system. Informal practices can contribute to the development of tools that would improve urban governance, especially in areas related to space. This article presents an overview of informal practices that have taken place in Polish cities and towns in recent years and offers an assessment of their impact on the quality of urban governance.
Information Extraction from Polish Radiology Reports using Language Models
- Aleksander Obuchowski
- Barbara Klaudel
- Patryk Jasik
2023 Full text
Radiology reports are vital elements of directing patient care. They are usually delivered in free text form, which makes them prone to errors, such as omission in reporting radiological findings and using difficult-to-comprehend mental shortcuts. Although structured reporting is the recommended method, its adoption continues to be limited. Radiologists find structured reports too limiting and burdensome. In this paper, we propose the model, which is meant to preserve the benefits of free text, while moving towards a structured report. The model automatically parametrizes Polish radiology reports based on language models. The models are trained on a large dataset of 1200 chest computed tomography (CT) reports annotated by multiple medical experts reports with 44 observation tags. Experimental analysis shows that models based on language models are able to achieve satisfactory results despite being pretrained on general domain corpora. Overall, the model achieves an F1 score of 81% and is able to successfully parametrize the most common radiological observations, allowing for potential adaptation in clinical practice. Our model is publicly available.
Initial Investigation of Wave Interactions During Simultaneous Valve Closures in Hydraulic Piping Systems
- Kamil Urbanowicz
- Igor Haluch
- Anton Bergant
- Adam Deptuła
- Paweł Śliwiński
2023 Full text WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
The effects of interference of pressure waves in simple piping systems were studied. A freeware computer code Allievi developed at the University of Valencia was used to simulate dynamic waveforms in simple and complex networks. The tests were carried out according to three scenarios. No pressure increases significantly exceeding the Joukowsky pressure in simple cases were noticed. When the effects of the simultaneous closing of three valves located at the three pressure reservoirs with pipes of the same diameter connected at "Y" junction were tested, it was shown that wave interference (between primary and reflected waves) is influenced strongly by the length of the analyzed pipes. Additionally, when a change of diameter was assumed at the "Y" junction, secondary waves appear, which are responsible for increased pressure in this type of the system (even when the lengths of the lines are identical). Water supply pipe systems are subject to cyclical loads and wave interference of similar types even during standard operations, that’s why the understanding of this issue is crucial to effectively protect the systems from the risk of possible cracks, bursts, and leaks.
Inline Waveguide Filter With Compact Frequency-Dependent Coupling Producing Two Additional Poles and Three Transmission Zeros
- Umar A. Majeed
- Muhammad Yameen Sandhu
- Adam Lamęcki
- Roberto Gómez-García
- Michał Mrozowski
2023
This work reports a compact frequency-dependent coupling (FDC) structure introduced in a rectangular waveguide, which allows to generate two additional in-band transmission poles and three transmission zeros (TZs). This serves to increase the order/selectivity of the waveguide bandpass filter in a compact inline topology, thus without the need for any additional space/volume or cross coupling. The proposed FDC consists of a partial-height post and a T-shaped post (P&T) that are placed side by side along the width of the waveguide. An equivalent circuit of the P&T FDC is also provided for the filter synthesis process. The TZs can be flexibly placed at either passband side. Electromagnetic-(EM)-simulated results for a fourth-order inline generalized-Chebyshev bandpass filter shaped by two cavity resonators that are coupled through a P&T FDC are presented to validate the RF operational principle of the conceived FDC.
Inline Waveguide Filter With Transmission Zeros Using a Modified-T-Shaped-Post Coupling Inverter
- Muhammad Yameen Sandhu
- Maciej Jasiński
- Adam Lamęcki
- Roberto Gomez-Garcia
- Michał Mrozowski
2023 Full text IEEE MICROWAVE AND WIRELESS COMPONENTS LETTERS
This letter reports the design techniques for a class 2 of inline waveguide bandpass filters with sharp-rejection capabil3 ities at the lower stopband based on a novel nonlinear-frequency4 variant-coupling (NFVC) structure. The proposed NFVC consists 5 of a modified-T-shaped metallic post (MTP) that is placed at the 6 center of the waveguide broad wall with its open arms lying 7 along the waveguide width. The engineered NFVC structure 8 produces a first-order bandpass filtering transfer function with 9 a pair of transmission zeros (TZs) located below the passband 10 range. To demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed NFVC 11 inverter, a 9.9-GHz third-order inline waveguide bandpass filter 12 prototype with two TZs is developed and tested. It consists of 13 two half-wavelength cavity resonators coupled together via the 14 conceived MTP coupling structure. The measured results are in 15 close agreement with the electromagnetic (EM) simulated ones, 16 thus validating the devised waveguide filter design principle
Innovations in Wastewater Treatment: Harnessing Mathematical Modeling and Computer Simulations with Cutting-Edge Technologies and Advanced Control Systems
- Jakub Drewnowski
- Bartosz Szeląg
- Fabrizio Sabba
- Magdalena Piłat-Rożek
- Adam Piotrowicz
- Grzegorz Łagód
2023 Full text Journal of Ecological Engineering
The wastewater treatment landscape in Central Europe, particularly in Poland, has undergone a profound transformation due to European Union (EU) integration. Fueled by EU funding and rapid technological advancements, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have adopted cutting-edge control methods to adhere to EU Water Framework Directive mandates. WWTPs contend with complexities such as variable flow rates, temperature fluctuations, and evolving influent compositions, necessitating advanced control systems and precise sensors to ensure water quality, enhance energy efficiency, and reduce operational costs. Wastewater mathematical modeling provides operational flexibility, acting as a virtual testing ground for process enhancements and resource optimization. Real-time sensors play a crucial role in creating these models by continuously monitoring key parameters and supplying data to predictive models. These models empower real-time decision-making, resulting in minimized downtime and reduced expenses, thus promoting the sustainability and efficiency of WWTPs while aligning with resource recovery and environmental stewardship goals. The evolution of WWTPs in Central Europe is driven by a range of factors. To optimize WWTPs, a multi-criteria approach is presented, integrating simulation models with data mining methods, while taking into account parameter interactions. This approach strikes a balance between the volume of data collected and the complexity of statistical analysis, employing machine learning techniques to cut costs for process optimization. The future of WWTP control systems lies in “smart process control systems”, which revolve around simulation models driven by real-time data, ultimately leading to optimal biochemical processes. In conclusion, Central Europe’s wastewater treatment sector has wholeheartedly embraced advanced control methods and mathematical modeling to comply with EU regulations and advance sustainability objectives. Real-time monitoring and sophisticated modeling are instrumental in driving efficient, resource-conscious operations. Challenges remain in terms of data accessibility and cost-effective online monitoring, especially for smaller WWTPs.