2024 - Repozytorium publikacji - Politechnika Gdańska

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Category Adaptation Meets Projected Distillation in Generalized Continual Category Discovery
- Grzegorz Rypeść
- Daniel Marczak
- Sebastian Cygert
- Tomasz Trzciński
- Bartłomiej Twardowski
2024
"Generalized Continual Category Discovery (GCCD) tackles learning from sequentially arriving, partially labeled datasets while uncovering new categories. Traditional methods depend on feature distillation to prevent forgetting the old knowledge. However, this strategy restricts the model’s ability to adapt and effectively distinguish new categories. To address this, we introduce a novel technique integrating a learnable projector with feature distillation, thus enhancing model adaptability without sacrificing past knowledge. The resulting distribution shift of the previously learned categories is mitigated with the auxiliary category adaptation network. We demonstrate that while each component offers modest benefits individually, their combination – dubbed CAMP (Category Adaptation Meets Projected distillation) – significantly improves the balance between learning new information and retaining old. CAMP exhibits superior performance across several GCCD and Class Incremental Learning scenarios. The code is available on Github."
Catheter-induced coronary artery and aortic dissections. A study of the mechanisms, risk factors, and propagation causes
- Jacek Klaudel
- Michał Glaza
- Barbara Klaudel
- Wojciech Trenkner
- Krzysztof Pawłowski
- Marek Szołkiewicz
2024 Pełny tekst Cardiology Journal
Background: Only the incidence, management, and prognosis of catheter-induced coronary artery and aortic dissections have been systematically studied until now. We sought to evaluate their mechanisms, risk factors, and propagation causes. Methods: Electronic databases containing 76,104 procedures and complication registries from 2000– –2020 were searched and relevant cineangiographic studies adjudicated. Results: Ninety-six dissections were identified. The overall incidence was 0.126%, and 0.021% for aortic injuries. The in-hospital mortality rate was 4.2%, and 6.25% for aortic dissections. Compared to the non-complicated population, patients with dissection were more often female (48% vs. 34%, p = 0.004), with a higher prevalence of comorbidities such as hypertension (56% vs. 25%, p < 0.001) or chronic kidney disease (10% vs. 4%, p = 0.002). They more frequently presented with acute myocardial infarction (72% vs. 43%, p < 0.001), underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (85% vs. 39%, p < 0.001), and were examined with a radial approach (77% vs. 65%, p = 0.011). The most prevalent predisposing factor was small ostium diameter and/or atheroma. Deep intubation for support, catheter malalignment, and vessel prodding were the most frequent precipitating factors. Of the three dissec- tion mechanisms, ‘wedged contrast injection’ was the commonest (the exclusive mechanism of aortic dissections). The propagation rate was 30.2% and led to doubling of coronary occlusions and aortic extensions. The most frequent progression triggers were repeat injections and unchanged catheter. In 94% of cases, dissections were inflicted by high-volume operators, with ≥ 5-year experience in 84% of procedures. The annual dissection rate increased over a 21-year timespan. Conclusions: Catheter-induced dissection rarely came unheralded and typically occurred during ur- gent interventions performed in high-risk patients by experienced operators. (Cardiol J) Key words: catheter-induced coronary dissection, iatrogenic aortocoronary dissection, percutaneous coronary intervention complications
Cathodes for Sodium‑Ion Batteries
- Monika Wilamowska-Zawłocka
- Anita Cymann-Sachajdak
- Zuzanna Zarach
- Magdalena Graczyk-Zajac
2024
Advances in lithium-ion battery (LIBs) technology have improved living conditions around the globe. However, there are increasing concerns regarding the sustainability and criticality of materials (lithium and cobalt) for LIBs. Considering sodium’s superiority in cost and abundance, the development of electrode materials for sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) has been intensively revisited. Limited types of structures are suitable for intercalation sodium ions due to their preferential sixfold coordination. Layered transition metal oxides and polyanion compounds can hold sodium cations in six-coordinated geometry. Additionally, Prussian Blue analogs (PBAs) with open interstitial sites exhibit Na-ion insertion properties. Sodium layered metal oxides demonstrate advantages such as high capacities and low price, but also exhibit problems like low operating voltage or structural instability upon multiple phase transitions during charge–discharge cycles. Polyanion-type compounds exhibit 3D structures with open channels that facilitate the diffusion of alkali metal ions. Moreover, the highly stable frameworks for reversible Na-ion insertion assure a good cyclability. PBAs possess two metal centers coordinated by cyano-groups. Tailoring the metal centers in this three-dimensional framework provides a tool to vary the redox potential of the compound and the size of the interstitial cavities. These three classes of compounds will be described in this chapter considering their composition, structure, electrochemical performance, sustainability, and cost.
CAUSES OF DEFECTS AND DAMAGE TO BRICK MASONRY ELEMENTS IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS
- Maciej Niedostatkiewicz
- Tomasz Majewski
2024 Pełny tekst Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports
Ceramic brick masonry elements constitute the largest number of structural systems of historic buildings, especially sacral and public utility buildings. In the past, they were also very commonly used as a material for the construction of military facilities. Historic buildings and masonry structures undergo destructive processes over time, the course of which can be very diverse and depends, among other things, on the physicochemical properties of the materials, the type of structure, the age of the building, working conditions and random conditions and events. The paper is an engineering review of the causes of damage to masonry structures and indicates the need for cooperation between representatives of various specialties of science and technology, in particular architectural historians, specialists in the field of conservation of monuments, structural engineers and specialists in the field of geotechnics, geology, hydrogeologists and meliorators in order to ensure the protection of masonry structures in historic buildings.
Cavitation and Solid-State Post-Condensation of Polyethylene Terephthalate: Literature Review
- Waldemar Karaszewski
- Paweł Wawrzyniak
- Artur Różański
2024 Materials
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is widely used in bottle production by stretch blow molding processes (SBM processes) due to its cost-effectiveness and low environmental impact. The presented literature review focuses on microcavitation and solid-state post-condensation effects that occur during the deformation of PET in the SBM process. The literature review describes cavitation and microcavitation effects in PET material and solid-state post-condensation of PET on the basis of a three-phase model of the PET microstructure. A three-phase model of PET microstructure (representing the amorphous phase in two ways, depending on the ratio of the trans-to-gauche conformation of the PET macromolecule and the amount of free volume) with a nucleation process, a crystallization process, and the use of positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) to analyze PET microstructure are discussed in detail. The conceptual model developed based on the literature combines solid-state post-condensation with microcavitation via the diffusion of the post-condensation product. This review identifies the shortcomings of the developed conceptual model and presents them with five hypotheses, which will be the basis for further research.
Celowe zanieczyszczanie pilotów w łączu w górę w interfejsie 5G NR
- Jarosław Magiera
- Piotr Rajchowski
2024 Przegląd Telekomunikacyjny + Wiadomości Telekomunikacyjne
Referat poświęcono zagadnieniu zakłócania sygnałów pilotowych w interfejsie radiowym 5G NR. Przedstawiono charakterystykę sygnału referencyjnego DMRS oraz uwarunkowania możliwości jego selektywnego zakłócenia. Opisano schemat transmisji w kanale fizycznym PUSCH, zaimplementowany w oprogramowaniu Sionna. Zaprezen-towano model symulacyjny oraz założenia badań wpływu zanieczyszczenia pilotów na jakość transmisji. Przedsta-wiono wyniki badań w zależności od mocy źródła zakłóce-nia oraz od jego lokalizacji względem stacji bazowej.
Centrifuge modelling of tapered wall jacked into dense sand
- Lech Bałachowski
- Worku Firomsa Kabeta
- Luc Thorel
- Matthieu Blanc
- Thierry Dubreucq
2024 Pełny tekst
A series of static penetration tests of trapezoidal walls in dense Fontainebleau sand were performed in the geotechnical centrifuge at Gustave Eiffel University. The models of wall with three different shapes (straight profile with thickness D=16mm, 0.75 degree and 1.5 degree of taper angle) but with the same volume were used. The soil mass was instrumented with five stress cells located at two levels at 2D, 4D and 6D distance from the wall axis to follow the stress state changes during the model penetration. Moreover, three pressure sensors were integrated on the model surface to track the changes of normal stress during the continuous penetration of the wall. Thus for the three walls of different geometry the evolution of the following variables is considered during monotonic penetration of the wall: 1) total vertical force; 2) horizontal stresses in the soil mass; 3) normal stresses on the wall surface.
CE-UV method for the determination of catecholamine metabolites from baby pee-covered diapers
- Jose Grau
- Magdalena Fabjanowicz
- Izabela Drążkowska
- Justyna Płotka-Wasylka
2024 JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
A method has been developed for the analysis of vanillylmandelic acid, homovanillic acid, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid from baby urine as biomarkers of neuroblastoma in infants. Disposable diapers were employed as sampling devices in order to guarantee a low invasiveness during this step. The proposed method consists on a simple extraction step with water from the used diaper followed by the measurement using capillary electrophoresis with UV detection. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to optimize the process of extracting catecholamine metabolites from the examined samples. The variables of the sample preparation step were optimized and the method was validated obtaining limits of quantification of 1.65 μg mL−1, good intraday and inter-day precision with RSDs under 15 %. Finally the method was applied to real samples collected from the Department of Neonatology, University Clinical Centre (Gdańsk, Poland). The greenness of the proposed method was also evaluated with different tools (i.e., AGREEPrep and GAPI) with satisfactory results, which allow to state that the method can be considered green. Moreover, its practicality was evaluated by application of BAGI tool, proving to be a practical and economical method to be applied in routine laboratories for determination of catecholamine metabolites in urine-type samples.
CFD COUPLING OF VOF MODEL WITH ARRHENIUS EQUATION FOR ANALYSIS OF LASER-INDUCED THERMAL DEACTIVATION OF E. COLI
- Aimad Koulali
- Piotr Radomski
- L. De Sio
- Dariusz Mikielewicz
- Paweł Ziółkowski
2024 Pełny tekst
Understanding bacterial deactivation at the micro-scale, particularly with E. coli, is crucial for advancing microbiology and has promising applications in biomedical research. In this research contribution, we investigate the thermal inactivation of E. coli bacteria using gold nanoparticles irradiated by a green 1-W laser within a microfluidic chamber. The microfluidic device comprises a fluidic chamber filled with a thin film of water and air (1 mm thick). The chamber is constructed with 1 mm PDMS coating on the top and side walls, and 1 mm borosilicate glass on the bottom. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) calculations are executed using ANSYS Fluent software employing the Volume of Fluid (VOF) multi-phase model. Bacterial deactivation is described by a first-order kinetic model, while the Arrhenius equation is employed to define the decay coefficient. The light-heat conversion is modeled using a literature-based approach, validated against experimental data. Our findings affirm the efficacy of the proposed physical model (laser + gold nanoparticles) for bacterial inactivation. Additionally, we propose an innovative approach by coupling bacterial inactivation equations and VOF model, opening avenues for further applications in the field.
Chained machine learning model for predicting load capacity and ductility of steel fiber–reinforced concrete beams
- Torkan Shafighfard
- Farzin Kazemi
- Faramarz Bagherzadeh
- Magdalena Mieloszyk
- Doo-Yeol Yoo
2024 Pełny tekst COMPUTER-AIDED CIVIL AND INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING
One of the main issues associated with steel fiber–reinforced concrete (SFRC) beams is the ability to anticipate their flexural response. With a comprehensive grid search, several stacked models (i.e., chained, parallel) consisting of various machine learning (ML) algorithms and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were developed to predict the flexural response of SFRC beams. The flexural performance of SFRC beams under bending was assessed based on 193 experimental specimens from real-life beam models. The ML techniques were applied to predict SFRC beam responses to bending load as functions of the steel fiber properties, concrete elastic modulus, beam dimensions, and reinforcement details. The accuracy of the models was evaluated using the coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean square error (RMSE) of actual versus predicted values. The findings revealed that the proposed technique exhibited notably superior performance, delivering faster and more accurate predictions compared to both the ANNs and parallel models. Shapley diagrams were used to analyze variable contributions quantitatively. Shapley values show that the chained model prediction of ductility index is highly affected by two other targets (peak load and peak deflection) that show the chained algorithm utilizing the prediction of previous steps for enhancing the prediction of the target feature. The proposed model can be viewed as a function of significant input variables that permit the quick assessment of the likely performance of SFRC beams in bending.
Challenges and future prospectives of MXenes
- Azka Akhlaq
- Shoomaila Latif
- Mohammad Imran
- Ayesha Javaid
- Grzegorz Boczkaj
2024
In the context of nanotechnology, MXenes gained considerable attention as two-dimensional (2D) materials derived from layered transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides. These materials display distinct characteristics with promising implications for a variety of practical applications. This book chapter provides an extensive exploration into MXenes’ fundamental concepts, such as how they are classified based on various composition factors and relevant synthesis techniques. An important aspect is covering diverse applications that range from energy conversion and storage and catalysis and chemical reactions to electronics, optoelectronics, and even biomedicine. Moreover, this chapter provides an insight into future prospects, bottlenecks, and vital considerations. Recognizing this, it serves as a comprehensive resource, offering readers a well-rounded understanding of MXene’s foundational concepts alongside its impressive applications across various scientific domains.
Challenges in Observing the Emotions of Children with Autism Interacting with a Social Robot
- Duygun Erol Barkana
- Katrin D. Bartl-Pokorny
- Hatice Kose
- Agnieszka Landowska
- Manuel Milling
- Ben Robins
- Bjorn Schuller
- Pinar Uluer
- Michał Wróbel
- Tatjana Zorcec
2024 Pełny tekst International Journal of Social Robotics
This paper concerns the methodology of multi-modal data acquisition in observing emotions experienced by children with autism while they interact with a social robot. As robot-enhanced therapy gains more and more attention and proved to be effective in autism, such observations might influence the future development and use of such technologies. The paper is based on an observational study of child-robot interaction, during which multiple modalities were captured and then analyzed to retrieve information on a child’s emotional state. Over 30 children on the autism spectrum from Macedonia, Turkey, Poland, and the United Kingdom took part in our study and interacted with the social robot Kaspar. We captured facial expressions/body posture, voice/vocalizations, physiological signals, and eyegaze-related data. The main contribution of the paper is reporting challenges and lessons learned with regard to interaction, its environment, and observation channels typically used for emotion estimation. The main challenge is the limited availability of channels, especially eyegaze-related (29%) and voice-related (6%) data are not available throughout the entire session. The challenges are of a diverse nature—we distinguished task-based, child-based, and environment-based ones. Choosing the tasks (scenario) and adapting environment, such as room, equipment, accompanying person, is crucial but even with those works done, the child-related challenge is the most important one. Therapists have pointed out to a good potential of those technologies, however, the main challenge to keep a child engaged and focused, remains. The technology must follow a child’s interest, movement, and mood. The main observations are the necessity to train personalized models of emotions as children with autism differ in level of skills and expressions, and emotion recognition technology adaptation in real time (e. g., switching modalities) to capture variability in emotional outcomes.
Changes in evaporation patterns and their impact on Climatic Water Balance and river discharges in central Poland, 1961–2020
- Arkadiusz Bartczak
- Michał Krzemiński
- Andrzej Araźny
2024 Regional Environmental Change
This study investigates the changes in precipitation and evaporation patterns and their impact on Climatic Water Balance and river discharges in central Poland from 1961 to 2020. The analysis focuses on two “normal” periods, 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 (according to the World Meteorological Organization). Bartlett’s test and the Kruskal–Wallis rank sum test were used to assess the homogeneity of variances and compare distributions of analyzed variables over two “normal” periods. The probability density functions were estimated using a kernel density estimator with a Gaussian kernel function. Significant findings indicate alterations in evaporation rates and shifts in water balance dynamics. Mean evaporation increased from 530.8 to 637.9 mm, leading to a notable decrease in the mean Climatic Water Balance from 1.1 to − 107.5 mm (in the periods 1961–1990 and 1991–2020, respectively). Additionally, rivers showed reduced mean annual discharges (from 4.28 to 3.01 m3·s−1 and 1.25 to 0.87 m3·s−1, for the Zgłowiączka and Skrwa Lewa rivers, respectively). These climatic changes in central Poland have substantial implications for regional water resources, especially in spring and summer and particularly in agricultural areas, potentially exacerbating drought conditions and impacting agricultural productivity mainly in the warm half-year.
Characteristics of Anthropogenic Pollution in the Atmospheric Air of South-Western Svalbard (Hornsund, Spring 2019)
- Filip Pawlak
- Kozioł Krystyna
- Wanda Wilczyńska-Michalik
- Mikołaj Worosz
- Marek Michalik
- Sara Lehmann-konera
- Żaneta Polkowska
2024 Water
The character of atmospheric pollution and its impact on surface waters may vary substantially in space, and hence, we add a potentially important location for the studies of atmospheric air pollution to the map of the High Arctic. We have investigated the anthropogenic particle characteristics and selected persistent organic pollutant concentrations, in a priorly unmonitored location in the Arctic (Svalbard), exposed to a climatic gradient. Single-particle analysis of PM indicates that besides the prevailing natural aerosol particles, anthropogenic ones were present. The likely anthropogenic origin of some particles was established for spherical Fe-rich or aluminosilicate particles formed in high-temperature processes or metal-rich particles of the chemical composition corresponding to industrial products and atypical for natural minerals; soot, tar balls, and secondary sulfate were also likely of anthropogenic origin. Some of the observed anthropogenic particles could only come from remote industrial sources. POP concentrations indicated a background of LRAT, consistent with the ΣPCB concentrations and volatility profile. However, the ΣDDX composition indicating aged sources and an order of magnitude higher concentrations of both ΣDDXs and ΣHCHs than at other High Arctic monitoring stations indicate their potential source in two types of re-emission from secondary sources, i.e., from seawater and snowpack, respectively.
Characteristics of silver-dopped carbon nanotube coating destined for medical applications
- Dorota Rogala-Wielgus
- Beata Majkowska-Marzec
- Andrzej Zieliński
2024 Pełny tekst Materials Today Communications
Carbon nanotubes are materials demonstrating outstanding mechanical, chemical, and physical properties and are considered coatings of titanium implants. The present research is aimed to characterize the microstructure and properties of the multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) layer decorated with silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) on the Ti13Nb13Zr alloy destined for long-term implants. The electrophoretic deposition of coatings was performed in a two-stage process, at first at 0.25 wt. pct. of MWCNTs, and next at 0.30 wt. pct. of Ag NPs content in the bath. The SEM, EDS, AFM, Raman spectroscopy, nanoindentation tests, nano-scratch test, wettability assessments, and corrosion tests were carried out. The effects of the presence of Ag NPs onto the MWCNTs coating were observed as the roughness increased to 0.380 µm and thickness to 5.26 µm, the improved adhesion and corrosion resistance, the water contact angle of 62.94◦, the decreased nanohardness, Young`s modulus and resistance to plastic deformation under load, and slightly improved adhesion. The obtained results can be explained by a specific two-layer structure of the coating, in which the Ag NPs agglomerates create the coating less porous and permeable, but softer structure. Future research will focus on the improvement of the adhesion of the component coatings in different ways.
Characterization of corrosion in reinforced concrete beams using destructive and non-destructive tests
- Tomasz Ferenc
- Erwin Wojtczak
- Błażej Meronk
- Magdalena Rucka
2024 Pełny tekst Case Studies in Construction Materials
The paper presents both non-destructive and destructive experimental tests on steel-reinforced concrete beams subjected to electrochemical corrosion. To examine the condition and behavior of the specimens, destructive tests were carried out, i.e., a three-point bending together with a modulated ultrasonic wave test. In addition, a series of non-destructive experiments were conducted, such as the potential measurement method, low-frequency vibrations, and ultrasonic wave propagation. A three-point bending test was conducted to examine the behavior of specimens under applied quasi-static force, together with a modulated ultrasonic wave test. The force-displacement relation, capacity, failure displacement, flexural stiffness, and failure mode were determined for each specimen. A modulated ultrasonic wave test was also performed during the flexural test. Prior to this, the specimens were visually inspected to check if any cracks occurred and a series of non-destructive tests such as potential measurement, low-frequency vibrations, and ultrasonic wave propagation were then performed.
Characterization of Corrosion-Induced Fracture in Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Electrical Potential, Ultrasound and Low-Frequency Vibration
- Tomasz Ferenc
- Erwin Wojtczak
- Błażej Meronk
- Jacek Ryl
- Krzysztof Wilde
- Magdalena Rucka
2024 Pełny tekst JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION
The paper deals with the non-destructive experimental testing of the reinforced concrete beams under progressive corrosion. A series of experiments using electrical potential, ultrasound and low-frequency vibrations techniques are reported. Electrical potential and natural frequencies were used to characterise and monitor the corrosion process at its initial state. The P-wave velocity measurements were proved to be effective in quantitative assessment of the level of corrosion as it progresses. The possibility of early detection of damage using a proposed damage index and diagnostic framework is promising for possible applications in the non-invasive diagnostics of reinforced concrete elements.
Characterization of Sunflower Waste Carbonization: Energy Balance and Water Holding Properties
- Jacek Kluska
- Karolina Matej-Łukowicz
- Nicole Nawrot
2024 Sustainability
This paper characterizes the carbonization process of biomass wastes, including sunflower husk pellets and sunflower sponge stalk pellets, at carbonization temperatures of 450 and 550 ◦C. These studies are important because of the reductions in wood resources for the preparation of barbecue charcoal, as well as agricultural benefits in terms of soil additives. In terms of energy balance, the obtained pyrolysis ensures the autothermal process. The heating characteristics of fixed bed showed that, due to the difference in bulk density, the bed temperature of the sunflower husk pellets reached 450 ◦C in 110 min, whereas the bed temperature of the sunflower stalk sponge reached the same temperature in 200 min. Additionally, the energy used for the sunflower husk carbonization increased from 2.9 kWh at 450 ◦C to 3.3 kWh at 550 ◦C, while the sunflower stalk sponge increased from 3.5 to 3.9 kWh. The combustion characteristics assessed using TGA showed that the carbonization of sunflower husk leads to obtained biochar with a higher combustion activity than biochar derived from sunflower stalk sponge. According to the experimental results, biochar from sunflower husk pellets has a higher water content capacity and water absorption rate than biochar from sunflower stalk sponge pellets.
Characterizing Interactions Between Small Peptides and Dimethyl Sulfoxide Using Infrared Spectroscopy and Computational Methods
- Aneta Panuszko
- Przemysław Pastwa
- Jacek Gajewski
- Piotr Bruździak
2024 MOLECULES
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the interactions between dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and two small peptides, diglycine and N-acetyl-glycine-methylamide (NAGMA), in aqueous solutions using FTIR spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and DFT results revealed that DMSO does not form direct bonds with the peptides, suggesting that DMSO indirectly influences both peptides by modifying the surrounding water molecules. The analysis of HDO spectra allowed for the isolation of the contribution of water molecules that were simultaneously altered by the peptide and DMSO, and it also explained the changes in the hydration shells of the peptides in the presence of DMSO. In the DMSO–diglycine system, DMSO contributes to the additional strengthening of water hydrogen bonds in the reinforced hydration sphere of diglycine. In contrast, DMSO has a more moderate effect on the water molecules surrounding NAGMA due to the similarity of their hydration shells, leading to a slight weakening of the hydrogen bonds in the NAGMA hydration sphere. DFT/ONIOM calculations confirmed these observations. These findings demonstrated that DMSO influences peptide stability differentially based on their structural characteristics.
Charakterystyka i zastosowanie związków powierzchniowo czynnych w produktach detergentowych. Skrypt do ćwiczeń
- Patrycja Szumała
2024
Niniejszy skrypt zawiera podstawy teoretyczne wprowadzające w tematykę związków powierzchniowo czynnych znajdujących zastosowanie w produktach detergentowych. Ponadto przedstawiono charakterystykę innych, dodatkowych składników takich produktów, jak również opis specjalistycznych detergentów przemysłowych. Opracowanie jest przeznaczone przede wszystkim dla studentów technologii chemicznej, realizujących zajęcia z przedmiotu technologia związków powierzchniowo czynnych, w ramach którego prowadzone są też ujęte w skrypcie zajęcia laboratoryjne. Jednak zawarte treści mogą się stać użyteczne dla wszystkich osób zainteresowanych produktami detergentowymi, także ze środowiska przemysłowego.